What is the consequence of cultures north of Central America having no writing system?

• A. They develop advanced bureaucratic states anyway
• B. Cultures flourish because memory and oral tradition improve over time
• C. Culture is fragile; if leaders and sages fall, so does the civilization
• D. They rely on written records from neighboring civilizations

Answer: (C)

Without a writing system, cultures must pass knowledge, laws, and histories by memory and oral tradition. That makes cultural continuity more fragile, because crucial information depends on a small number of people who carry and teach it. If those leaders, elders, or storytellers die or are displaced, ideas can be forgotten or distorted, and the civilization’s ability to govern and remember its past can deteriorate. This is why the consequence centers on fragility tied to the persistence of memory-keepers. The other options assume outcomes that writing typically enables or guarantees, which aren’t inherent when writing is absent.